The languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-European languages—Indo-Aryan (spoken by 72% of Indians) and the Dravidian languages(spoken by 25% of Indians).[1] Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.[2]
| Languages of India | |
|---|---|
| Official language(s) | Standard Hindi written in theDevanāgarī script (the Indian Constitution recognises English as a subsidiary official language)
|
| Regional language(s) | Assamese · Bengali · Bodo ·Chhattisgarhi · Dogri · Garo · Gujarati ·Standard Hindi · Kannada · Kashmiri ·Khasi · Kokborok · Konkani · Maithili ·Malayalam · Manipuri · Marathi · Mizo ·Nepali · Oriya · Punjabi · Sanskrit ·Santali · Sindhi · Telugu · Tamil · Urdu |
The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language.[3] The constitution of India states that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script."[4] Neither the Constitution of India nor Indian law specifies a national language, a position supported by a High Court ruling.[5] However, languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian constitution are sometimes referred to, without legal standing, as the national languages of India.[6][7]
Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred;[8] the 1961 census recognized 1,652[9] (SIL Ethnologue lists 415). According to Census of India of 2001, 29 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.[10]
Contents[show] |
[edit]History
Main article: Linguistic history of India
The northern Indian languages from the Indo-European family evolved from Old Indo-Aryan such as Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhraṃśa of the Middle Ages. There is no consensus for a specific time where the modern north Indian languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Saraiki, Punjabi, Assamese, Sindhi and Oriya emerged, but AD 1000 is commonly accepted.[11] Each language had different influences, with Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) being strongly influenced by Persian.
The Dravidian languages of South India had a history independent of Sanskrit. The major Dravidian languages are Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam.[12] Though Dravidian in origin, over eighty percent of words in Malayalam and Telugu are pure Sanskrit words.[13][14][15][16] Telugu script can reproduce the full range of Sanskrit phonetics without losing any of the text's originality.[17] TheAustro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages of North-East India also have long independent histories.
[edit]Inventories
Main articles: Official languages of India and List of Indian languages by total speakers
Dialectologists distinguish the terms "language" and "dialect" on the basis of mutual intelligibility. The Indian census uses two specific classifications in its own unique way: (1) 'language' and (2) 'mother tongue'. The 'mother tongues' are grouped within each 'language'. Many 'mother tongues' so defined would be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many 'mother tongues' with tens of millions of speakers that is officially grouped under the 'language' Hindi.
The Indian census of 1961 recognised 1,652 different languages in India (including languages not native to the subcontinent). The 1991 census recognizes 1,576 classified "mother tongues"[18] SIL Ethnologue lists 415 living "Languages of India" (out of 6,912 worldwide).
According to the 1991 census, 22 'languages' had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).[18]
According to the most recent census of 2001, 29 'languages' have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers.
The government of India has given 22 "languages of the 8th Schedule" the status of official language. The number of languages given this status has increased through the political process. Some languages with a large number of speakers still do not have this status, the largest of these being Bhili/Bhiladi with some 9.6 million native speakers (ranked 14th), followed by Gondi with 2.7 million speakers (ranked 18th) and Khandeshi with 2.1 million speakers (ranked 22nd). On the other hand, 2 languages with fewer than 2 million native speakers have recently been included in the 8th Schedule for mostly political reasons: Manipuri/Maithei with 1.5 million speakers (ranked 25th) and Bodo with 1.4 million speakers (ranked 26th).
[edit]Language families
The languages of India belong to several language families. The largest of these in terms of speakers is the Indo-European family, predominantly represented in its Indo-Aryan branch (accounting for some 700 million speakers, or 69% of the population), but also including minority languages such as Persian, Portuguese or French, and English as a lingua franca. Kashmiri and other Dardic languages, which form part of the Indo-Iranian, and arguably Indo-Aryan family, have some 4.6 million speakers in India.
The second largest language family is the Dravidian family, accounting for some 200 million speakers, or 26%. Families with smaller numbers of speakers are Austro-Asiatic and numerous small Tibeto-Burman languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 5% of the population.
The Ongan languages of the southern Andaman Islands form a fifth family; the Great Andamanese languages are extinct apart from one highly endangered language with a dwindling number of speakers. There is also a known language isolate, the Nihali language. The Shompen language or languages is/are poorly attested and unclassified. Sentinelese is entirely unknown.
Most languages in the Indian republic are written in Brahmi-derived scripts, such as Devangari, Kannada, Bengali, Telugu, Oriya, Tamil, etc., though Urdu is written in a derivation of Arabic, and a few minor languages such as Santali have independent scripts.
[edit]Official languages
Main article: Official languages of India
The official languages of the Republic of India are Standard Hindi and English. According to the article 343 (1), "The Official Language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script."[19] The individual states can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. For example,the state of Maharashtra has Marathi as its sole official language, the state of Punjab has Punjabi as its sole official language, the state of Andhra Pradesh has Telugu as its sole official language, the state of Tamil Nadu has Tamil as its sole official language and the state of Karnataka has Kannada as its sole official language, while the state of Jammu and Kashmir has Kashmiri, Urdu, and Dogri as its official languages.
Article 345 of the Indian constitution provides recognition to "official languages" of the union to include Standard Hindi or any one or more of the languages adopted by a state legislature as the official language. Until the Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18.[20] Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration and education.
The following table lists the official languages, aside from English, set out in the eighth schedule as of May 2008:[21]
[edit]Official classical languages
In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language in India".[24] Languages thus far declared to be Classical are Tamil (in 2004),[25] Sanskrit (in 2005),[26] Kannada and Telugu (in 2008).[27]
In 2005, Sanskrit, which already had special status in Article 351 of the Constitution of India as the primary source language for the development of the official standard of Hindi,[28] was also declared to be a classical language; this was followed by similar declarations for Kannada and Telugu in 2008, based on the recommendation of a committee of linguistic experts constituted by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.[27]
In a 2006 press release, Minister of Tourism & Culture Ambika Soni told the Rajya Sabha the following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for classification as a "classical Language",[29]
| “ | High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years; A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. | ” |
[edit]Regional languages
In British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes. When India became independent in 1947, the Indian legislators had the challenge of choosing a language for official communication as well as for communication between different linguistic regions across India. The choices available were:
- Making "Hindi", which a plurality of the people (40%)[citation needed] identified as their mother tongue, the official language, though only a minority of these "Hindi" speakers spoke Hindi proper.
- Making English, as preferred by non-Hindi speakers, particularly Tamils, and those from Mizoram and Nagaland, the official language. See also Anti-Hindi agitations.
- Declare both Hindi and English as official languages and each state is given freedom to choose the official language of the state.
The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union.[30] Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965.[30] The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result,Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963,[31][32][33][34][35][36] which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.
See also: Languages with official status in India
[edit]Practical problems
Choosing Hindi as an official language presents serious problems to every person whose "mother tongue" is not Hindi. This may be a huge burden for children who have to learn Standard Hindi completely just to advance to the next level in education. This is because all the boards of education across India, recognized the 'need' of training people to one common language. There are many complaints that in North India, non-Hindi speakers undergo considerable difficulties on account of language.[37][dead link] Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction.[citation needed]
[edit]Language conflicts
There are some significant conflicts over linguistic rights in India.
The first major linguistic conflict, known as the Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the sole official language of India. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringingDMK to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu.[38] Strong cultural pride based on language is also found in other Indian states such as Kerala, Bengal, Maharashtra and in Karnataka. To express disapproval of the imposition of an alien language Hindi on its people as a result of the central government overstepping its constitutional authority, Maharashtra and Karnataka Governments made the state languages compulsory in educational institutions.[39]
Recently anti-Hindi feelings have been expressed in Mumbai by Shiv Sena and Maharashtra Navnirman Sena[40]
The Government of India attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore, a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, Ministry of Human Resource Development.
[edit]Writing systems
Main articles: Indic scripts and Nasta'liq script
Various Indian languages have corresponding scripts for them. Marathi language is written with Devanagari. Most other languages are written using a script specific to them, such as Bengali withBengali, Punjabi with Gurmukhi,Oriya with Utkal Lipi Gujarati with Gujarati etc. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Saraiki and Sindhi are written in modified versions of the Perso-Arabic script. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. (See ISO 15919 regarding Romanization of Indian languages)
No comments:
Post a Comment